Automatic Type Promotion in Expressions
In addition to assignments, there is another place where certain type conversions may occur: in expressions. To see why, consider the following. In an expression, the precision required of an intermediate value will sometimes exceed the range of either operand. For example, examine the following expression:
In addition to assignments, there is another place where certain type conversions may occur: in expressions. To see why, consider the following. In an expression, the precision required of an intermediate value will sometimes exceed the range of either operand. For example, examine the following expression:
byte a = 40;
byte b = 50;
byte c = 100;
int d = a * b / c;
The result of the intermediate term a * b easily exceeds the range of either of its byte operands. To handle this kind of problem, Java automatically promotes each byte or short operand to int when evaluating an expression. This means that the subexpression a * b is performed using integers—not bytes. Thus, 2,000, the result of the intermediate expression, 50 * 40, is legal even though a and b are both specified as type byte.
As useful as the automatic promotions are, they can cause confusing compile-time errors. For example, this seemingly correct code causes a problem:
byte b = 50;
b = b * 2; // Error! Cannot assign an int to a byte!
The code is attempting to store 50 * 2, a perfectly valid byte value, back into a byte variable. However, because the operands were automatically promoted to int when the expression was evaluated, the result has also been promoted to int. Thus, the result of the expression is now of type int, which cannot be assigned to a byte without the use of a cast. This is true even if, as in this particular case, the value being assigned would still fit in the target type.
In cases where you understand the consequences of overflow, you should use an explicit cast, such as
byte b = 50;
b = (byte)(b * 2);
which yields the correct value of 100.
The Type Promotion Rules
In addition to the elevation of bytes and shorts to int, Java defines several type promotion
rules that apply to expressions. They are as follows. First, all byte and short values are
promoted to int, as just described. Then, if one operand is a long, the whole expression
is promoted to long. If one operand is a float, the entire expression is promoted to float.
If any of the operands is double, the result is double.
The following program demonstrates how each value in the expression gets
promoted to match the second argument to each binary operator:
class Promote {
public static void main(String args[]) {
byte b = 42;
char c = 'a';
short s = 1024;
int i = 50000;
float f = 5.67f;
double d = .1234;
double result = (f * b) + (i / c) - (d * s);
System.out.println((f * b) + " + " + (i / c) + " - " + (d * s));
System.out.println("result = " + result);
}
}
Let’s look closely at the type promotions that occur in this line from the program:
double result = (f * b) + (i / c) - (d * s);
In the first subexpression, f * b, b is promoted to a float and the result of the subexpression is float. Next, in the subexpression i / c, c is promoted to int, and the result is of type int. Then, in d * s, the value of s is promoted to double, and the type of the subexpression is double. Finally, these three intermediate values, float, int, and double, are considered. The outcome of float plus an int is a float. Then the resultant float minus the last double is promoted to double, which is the type for the final result of the expression.
Arrays
Arrays
An array is a group of like-typed variables that are referred to by a common name. Arrays of any type can be created and may have one or more dimensions. A specific element in an array is accessed by its index. Arrays offer a convenient means of grouping related information.
If you are familiar with C/C++, be careful. Arrays in Java work differently than they do in those languages.
One-Dimensional Arrays
A one-dimensional array is, essentially, a list of like-typed variables. To create an array, you first must create an array variable of the desired type. The general form of a onedimensional array declaration is
type var-name[ ];
Here, type declares the base type of the array. The base type determines the data type of each element that comprises the array. Thus, the base type for the array determines what type of data the array will hold. For example, the following declares an array named month_days with the type “array of int”:
int month_days[];
Although this declaration establishes the fact that month_days is an array variable, no array actually exists. In fact, the value of month_days is set to null, which represents an array with no value. To link month_days with an actual, physical array of integers, you must allocate one using new and assign it to month_days. new is a special operator that allocates memory.
You will look more closely at new in a later chapter, but you need to use it now to allocate memory for arrays. The general form of new as it applies to one-dimensional arrays appears as follows:
array-var = new type[size];
Here, type specifies the type of data being allocated, size specifies the number of elements in the array, and array-var is the array variable that is linked to the array. That is, to use new to allocate an array, you must specify the type and number of elements to allocate. The elements in the array allocated by new will automatically be initialized to zero. This example allocates a 12-element array of integers and links them to month_days.
month_days = new int[12];
After this statement executes, month_days will refer to an array of 12 integers. Further, all elements in the array will be initialized to zero.
Let’s review: Obtaining an array is a two-step process. First, you must declare a variable of the desired array type. Second, you must allocate the memory that will hold the array, using new, and assign it to the array variable. Thus, in Java all arrays are dynamically allocated. If the concept of dynamic allocation is unfamiliar to you,
Once you have allocated an array, you can access a specific element in the array by specifying its index within square brackets. All array indexes start at zero. For example, this statement assigns the value 28 to the second element of month_days.
month_days[1] = 28;
The next line displays the value stored at index 3.
System.out.println(month_days[3]);
Putting together all the pieces, here is a program that creates an array of the number of days in each month.
// Demonstrate a one-dimensional array.
class Array {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int month_days[];
month_days = new int[12];
month_days[0] = 31;
month_days[1] = 28;
month_days[2] = 31;
month_days[3] = 30;
month_days[4] = 31;
month_days[5] = 30;
month_days[6] = 31;
month_days[7] = 31;
month_days[8] = 30;
month_days[9] = 31;
month_days[10] = 30;
month_days[11] = 31;
System.out.println("April has " + month_days[3] + " days.");
}
}
When you run this program, it prints the number of days in April. As mentioned, Java array indexes start with zero, so the number of days in April is month_days[3] or 30.
It is possible to combine the declaration of the array variable with the allocation of the array itself, as shown here:
int month_days[] = new int[12];
This is the way that you will normally see it done in professionally written Java programs.
Arrays can be initialized when they are declared. The process is much the same as that used to initialize the simple types. An array initializer is a list of comma-separated expressions surrounded by curly braces. The commas separate the values of the array elements. The array will automatically be created large enough to hold the number of elements you specify in the array initializer. There is no need to use new. For example, to store the number of days in each month, the following code creates an initialized array of integers:
// An improved version of the previous program.
class AutoArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int month_days[] = { 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31,
30, 31 };
System.out.println("April has " + month_days[3] + " days.");
}
}
When you run this program, you see the same output as that generated by the previous version.
Java strictly checks to make sure you do not accidentally try to store or reference values outside of the range of the array. The Java run-time system will check to be sure that all array indexes are in the correct range. (In this regard, Java is fundamentally different from C/C++, which provide no run-time boundary checks.) For example, the run-time system will check the value of each index into month_days to make sure that it is between 0 and 11 inclusive. If you try to access elements outside the range of the array (negative numbers or numbers greater than the length of the array), you will cause a run-time error.
Here is one more example that uses a one-dimensional array. It finds the average of a set of numbers.
// Average an array of values.
class Average {
public static void main(String args[]) {
double nums[] = {10.1, 11.2, 12.3, 13.4, 14.5};
double result = 0;
int i;
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
result = result + nums[i];
System.out.println("Average is " + result / 5);
}
}
Multidimensional Arrays
In Java, multidimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays. These, as you might expect, look and act like regular multidimensional arrays. However, as you will see, there are a couple of subtle differences. To declare a multidimensional array variable, specify each additional index using another set of square brackets. For example, the following declares a two-dimensional array variable called twoD.
int twoD[][] = new int[4][5];
The following program numbers each element in the array from left to right, top to bottom, and then displays these values:
// Demonstrate a two-dimensional array.
class TwoDArray {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int twoD[][]= new int[4][5];
int i, j, k = 0;
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
for(j=0; j<5; j++) {
twoD[i][j] = k;
k++;
}
for(i=0; i<4; i++) {
for(j=0; j<5; j++)
System.out.print(twoD[i][j] + " ");
System.out.println();
}
}
}
This program generates the following output:
0 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19
When you allocate memory for a multidimensional array, you need only specify the memory for the first (leftmost) dimension. You can allocate the remaining dimensions separately. For example, this following code allocates memory for the first dimension of twoD when it is declared. It allocates the second dimension manually.
int twoD[][] = new int[4][];
twoD[0] = new int[5];
twoD[1] = new int[5];
twoD[2] = new int[5];
twoD[3] = new int[5];
While there is no advantage to individually allocating the second dimension arrays in this situation, there may be in others. For example, when you allocate dimensions manually, you do not need to allocate the same number of elements for each dimension. As stated earlier, since multidimensional arrays are actually arrays of arrays, the length of each array is under your control. For example, the following program creates a twodimensional array in which the sizes of the second dimension are unequal.
// Manually allocate differing size second dimensions.
class TwoDAgain {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int twoD[][] = new int[4][];
twoD[0] = new int[1];
twoD[1] = new int[2];
twoD[2] = new int[3];
twoD[3] = new int[4];
int i, j, k = 0;
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
for(j=0; j<i+1; j++) {
twoD[i][j] = k;
k++;
}
for(i=0; i<4; i++) {
for(j=0; j<i+1; j++)
System.out.print(twoD[i][j] + " ");
System.out.println();
}
}
}
This program generates the following output:
0
1 2
3 4 5
6 7 8 9
The use of uneven (or, irregular) multidimensional arrays is not recommended for most applications, because it runs contrary to what people expect to find when a multidimensional array is encountered. However, it can be used effectively in some situations. For example, if you need a very large two-dimensional array that is sparsely populated (that is, one in which not all of the elements will be used), then an irregular array might be a perfect solution.
It is possible to initialize multidimensional arrays. To do so, simply enclose each dimension’s initializer within its own set of curly braces. The following program creates a matrix where each element contains the product of the row and column indexes. Also notice that you can use expressions as well as literal values inside of array initializers.
// Initialize a two-dimensional array.
class Matrix {
public static void main(String args[]) {
double m[][] = {
{ 0*0, 1*0, 2*0, 3*0 },
{ 0*1, 1*1, 2*1, 3*1 },
{ 0*2, 1*2, 2*2, 3*2 },
{ 0*3, 1*3, 2*3, 3*3 }
};
int i, j;
for(i=0; i<4; i++) {
for(j=0; j<4; j++)
System.out.print(m[i][j] + " ");
System.out.println();
}
}
}
When you run this program, you will get the following output:
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0
As you can see, each row in the array is initialized as specified in the initialization lists.
Let’s look at one more example that uses a multidimensional array. The following program creates a 3 by 4 by 5, three-dimensional array. It then loads each element with the product of its indexes. Finally, it displays these products.
// Demonstrate a three-dimensional array.
class threeDMatrix {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int threeD[][][] = new int[3][4][5];
int i, j, k;
for(i=0; i<3; i++)
for(j=0; j<4; j++)
for(k=0; k<5; k++)
threeD[i][j][k] = i * j * k;
for(i=0; i<3; i++) {
for(j=0; j<4; j++) {
for(k=0; k<5; k++)
System.out.print(threeD[i][j][k] + " ");
System.out.println();
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}
This program generates the following output:
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4
0 2 4 6 8
0 3 6 9 12
0 0 0 0 0
0 2 4 6 8
0 4 8 12 16
0 6 12 18 24
Alternative Array Declaration Syntax
There is a second form that may be used to declare an array:
type[ ] var-name;
Here, the square brackets follow the type specifier, and not the name of the array variable. For example, the following two declarations are equivalent:
int al[] = new int[3];
int[] a2 = new int[3];
The following declarations are also equivalent:
char twod1[][] = new char[3][4];
char[][] twod2 = new char[3][4];
This alternative declaration form is included as a convenience, and is also useful when specifying an array as a return type for a method.
